Validity and Reliability of peer review

Validity refers to a study that is accurate and assesses given areas of study that the researcher should understand. Validity may be internal or external. This depends on the aspect of the study that the researcher wants to measure.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Validity and Reliability of peer review specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Internal validity is the design of conducting research and how the decision making process is undertaken to get the best results. External validity explains the depth of study and the level of generalization and comparison with research studies that different authors conduct. Reliability refers to the extent to which a given research project can give consistent results and outcome. This is achieved when several experiments are done using the same procedure. In this case, the experiments are done using the same research tools and procedures even if conducted by different researche rs. However, the outcome should be similar. Reliable data from a research study should be relevant to the problems that the researcher should solve to help in the decision-making process (Lippincott Williams Wilkins, 2007). Validity measures how an instrument can measure a given characteristic in a research field accurately. In this regard, similar results are expected when using a common procedure. When the experiment is done, and the results are compared, they should indicate the same outcome. For a research to be valid, the results should be verified by a peer in the same doctrine of study. A peer is a person who shares the same legal status in terms of education or even age. A peer can also be a person who shares qualifications or abilities with another researcher. Thus, in a health and medicine field, it is important for researchers to undertake peer review of a given study. Peer review is important because it helps to check the validity of any results derived from a research study. In the field of medicine, the researcher should consult widely with peers to find solutions to health issues that affect people. Peer review help to compare the best approach to a given ailment and thus better drugs are provided to people (Gerrish Lacey, 2010). On the other hand, reliability can be enhanced by conducting peer review among different people in the same field of study to find the best result and outcome that can be relied upon by all. Having peer review helps in determining the consistency of results in the area of study.Advertising Looking for article on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Two health officer researchers can review one another’s work on a given topic to expound on the topic. This helps to eradicate any errors that might have occurred during the initial stages of research. Peer review helps in comparing the analysis of each health officer and to gauge the consistency o f the data used in the research. Test and retesting can be done on the data to bring out the consistency in results while following the required procedure. The review can be done by a committee to ascertain consistency of the data because human decisions are classified as reliable if different people come to the same conclusion and results. Peer reviews that are done by committees should be supervised so as to achieve the objectives of the research. Thus, the committee should have access to information from other professionals in the same field of study who can check for consistency of the information. Therefore, for a given health and medical information to be considered valid and reliable, it should have undergone a peer review. In this case, it is crucial to certify the information given by the researcher on the topic (Lippincott Williams Wilkins, 2007). References Gerrish, K. Lacey, A. (2010). The research process in nursing. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell. Lipp incott Williams Wilkins. (2007). Best practices: Evidence-based nursing procedures. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. This article on Validity and Reliability of peer review was written and submitted by user Macey Z. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook

5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook 5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook While we’re still fond of the old-fashioned papery versions, no one can deny that digital self-publishing has made it much easier for authors to find an audience for their writing. But how does self-publishing an ebook work? And what do you need to do? We have a few tips to share. A library in tablet form! 1. Edit, Edit, and Edit Some More! If you want to impress readers, typos and bad formatting have to be avoided. But many ebooks fall into this trap due to a lack of editing and proofreading. Make sure your manuscript is ready before you even think about publishing. This means seeking feedback and redrafting until it is perfect, as well as formatting it correctly. Getting the final draft proofread is essential, too, so get in touch with us when you’re ready! 2. Cover Art We’re told not to judge a book by its cover, but not everyone listens to this advice. As such, you’ll want to think about how you present your ebook. Your cover art should look professional and work as a thumbnail. And remember to write a short, catchy blurb to use on the back cover. 3. Picking a Platform There are plenty of services self-published authors can use, including major industry players such as Kobo, Amazon KDP, and Smashwords. Amazon KDP also has a â€Å"Select† service, which offers extra benefits in return for publishing exclusively on Kindle. This can be great for new authors, but once you are more established, you may want to publish on multiple platforms to reach as wide an audience as possible. 4. Creating an Ebook File Some self-publishing services automatically create an ebook file when you upload a Microsoft Word document. However, for extra control over the process, you may want to do this yourself! The biggest decision here is which file format to use. A PDF is fine if your ebook will be read on computers, but for mobile devices you’ll need a dedicated ebook format. Your options here are ePub and MOBI (Amazon KDP only accepts MOBI files, so keep this in mind if using this service). You cannot create ePub or MOBI files in MS Word, but there is software available to do this. 5. Selling Your Ebook Once your ebook file is ready, you need to find an audience and promote your book! Part of this will be done on the publishing platform (e.g., writing a blurb, picking keywords, setting a price). The rest will come once your book is available for purchase. Think about setting up a blog and social media accounts, sending a free copy to reviewers, or limited giveaway and discount promotions. The point of all this is to get people talking, as word of mouth and positive reviews will help more than anything else!

ETHICAL DECISIONS IN LEADERSHIP (case study) Case Study

ETHICAL DECISIONS IN LEADERSHIP ( ) - Case Study Example The first one is Liz, an African American with the company for five years. Here performance was considered just average but her energy rated high. Second one was Roy who was with the company for twenty years. He has been considered below average in all performance parameters and his retirement is almost due. Yeh, Asian, has limited stint in the company. He is a above average performer, but disliked by many. Left to her own decision, Lucy would have succeeded in choosing the right person. But the problem is that all the three are candidates for many. Lucy is sympathetic towards Liz because of the illness of her kid that exerts extra financial burden to her. Promotion could indeed help her to surmount the financial problems to a great extent. It also appears that Lucy has connections with Liz that is beyond their work relationship. On the other hand, Roy had been with the company for a long time. If promoted, he would retire happily with a great sense of accomplishment. This would go a long way in motivating other staff who are aging. But the problem is very severe with the third candidate Yeh, who has been engaged to the son of Vice-President. Lucy her self is a subordinate to Vice-President. The Vice President has already spoken to Lucy on the need for promoting Yeh because of the social respect stake involved in it. There are very many considerations other than work related that Lucy would have to consider before recommending a suitable candidate to the management. Management has already indicated to Lucy that the selection of the candidate had to be done very carefully as a significant stake of the company was involved in it. At one level, Lucy has to live up to the professional ethics; but at another level, she would have to decided by considering factors beyond work relationship. A good leader is one who could influence people to perform tasks willingly with zeal and confidence. Invigorating enthusiasm amongst the ranks and files is central to

MEMO REPORT(WAGE NEGOTIATIONS Incident Decision) Assignment

MEMO REPORT(WAGE NEGOTIATIONS Incident Decision) - Assignment Example The union has made it clear that if their demands are not met the employees will go on strike. The firm should avoid the strike scenario under all consequences. The proposed solution avoids the risk of a work stoppage caused by a worker’s strike. The optimal solution for the company is to settle with the union in order to resolve the incident. The negotiator send to talk will admit that the employees deserve a raise. The negotiator will explain to the union representatives that the increase in production of the company came due to a variety of factors including better equipment, optimal use of technology, and mastering the learning curve. The human factor also contributed directly to the increment in production. The firm will open its books to show the union that the company cannot afford such a high increment in salary. The proposed solution is to offer the employees an increase of $400 per

Discussion about the Play “A Raisin in the Sun” Essay Example for Free

Discussion about the Play â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† Essay If the dreams between people clashed in a way that their desires are going towards different unparallel directions, will it be a significant factor that can suggest that the dream will no longer be achieved? Or will it remain to be a matter of what to do and dependent with the ability to adapt with all the situations – To create a new one or to stay as a victim of the failure that happened? Moreover, it can be the test of whether the dream will be created by a person or the situations like failures will create the dreamers. Either way, it is up to the dreamer which one he will allow to happen. The play A Raisin in the Sun portrayed a family bound with dreams, subjected for possibility and risks of failures and tended to stand up once again to bound themselves again with different dreams and start all over. Situations had become too oppressive that they found themselves sometimes, in the midst of dilemmas that are more likely to be considered as lack of options. Each members of the family has repressed wish that distinguished their character from another. In a way, this is the typical American family with their economical and social structure and reacting normally with the involvement of the other big factor that made the twist of the story – the factor of Money. With the flow of the story, the struggles the family had in dealing with their situations after the death of the father caused them to create the ideal situations in their head of what needs to be done. There remained their intentions to have better life for their family and better life for themselves individually. This later tested their grasp with their family ties. With the individual conception of what is good, what can only go wrong is the inability to be in alignment of what you wanted with what other family members wanted. It can also become a consequent question of whether you hold fast to your dreams or hold on to the bigger picture of what needs to be done as part of the family (Mintz and Kellogg 38). The characters of the play supplied the dreamers role and collectively, a set of contrasting roles carrying ideas and subjects. Set in mid 1800’s, the story was centered in the dreams of the Younger Family and clashes with prejudices that the characters had as they strive to have a better position in their community as a whole. Perspective to be used in the Analysis There are schools of thoughts that are highly applicable with the study of the family being portrayed in this play written by Lorraine Hansberry: first, we can see it in the perspective using functionalism or second, it can be through interactionism. Later, this will be used to reveal how the dreams are being formed and what the motivations that determined the creation of these dreams are. These are the schools that traced the families in America with their way of being developed, managed and designed. The material variable in the family structure can be seen through the role they are playing and be analyzed objectively. Also, we can also see it from the perspective of an interactionist who is primarily concerned with the way the people are acting in response to other people or situations. Yes, these schools have difference with the primary objects of their concern, but essentially they contribute with the thorough understanding with the functions and interactions aspect of a family (Hamilton 47). It can give us the ideas of where the dreams of the characters in the story are actually directed. The Dreamers, their Motivations, and the Clash It all started with Ten Thousand Dollars. The characters of the play provided the audiences with the humanistic range of possible thought process that can be derived from a single source of stimulus. There was an emphasis given earlier with the role of Money in this story for this is the stimulus that moved the characters to make their stand. The money pertains to the $10,000 insurance amount that Lena Younger, the maternal character not just a mother figure, got after her husband passed away. Lena is also called Mama in the story and she possessed the maternal qualities that exhibit a picture of a loving, caring, and understanding woman. Such a woman only has one goal in life – To make her children happy or happier with all of her ability. The material figure that conveyed this goal of Mama is the house that she bought for $3,000. It symbolizes the unity, stability, and economical status that she believes to be important for her family (Morrin and Hansberry 35-38). The picture of the house portrayed the whole dream of Lena. It extends from the social ground of its manifestation to the subtle emotion a mother could possibly feel. This dream clashes with her son’s concerns. Walter, the son, has concerns about the Money that can be categorized as the dream for continuous economic stability of the family. When it comes with the nature of his character, he can be the figure that represents masculine authority of the story. He supplied the protagonist role but with his racial prejudices paired with his conflicts while performing both role of a son and a husband makes him supply his own contrast as an antagonist. Walter became not excited about the house bought by Mama. He has ulterior motives for the money and had a clear image in his mind on what to do with the money. For quite a long time, he has a dream of participating in a business involved in Liquor products (Morrin and Hansberry 47). As a masculine role, the story puts more authority in Walter’s hand as he got the control over the Insurance money and managed it. Lena put his trust on Walter and this shows how Lena is more than willing to give whatever her child wants. Though this doesn’t show any touch of negligence in her part. The acquisition process of the dream in this context doesn’t have any conflict yet. The conflict happened with the aftermath of the decision that placed Walter in the position of higher authority with the Money. The first clash of dream is done with the two given characters and the structure of both dreams must be observed carefully. We can notice the function of money ranges from how it fueled the quest for the dream to the conflict the two characters had. The conflict didn’t last since one of these two dreams was restructured. Lena, whose dream is to provide what her children wanted still managed to achieve it in a way by fueling Walter’s procedure of achieving his dream. There was a conflict because the functions of the house Lena bought don’t go with the alignment of Walter’s dream. It was settled because Lena followed that alignment as a response without violating her desires that is basically structured solely for the happiness of her children. The other child of Lena is Beneatha, the twenty year old woman, who had dream of being a physician. She is considered as intellectual and also an ambitious college student and required Money for the matriculation of the course. The conflicts Beneatha had are related to the money she required for her education and this is directed to Walter who has the control over it. Her sole dream of becoming a doctor will be compromised without the money. She got mad at Walter when she learned that Walter did not put any amount for her study. It seems like a big turnaround from all of her aspirations and she went depressed. This clash is apparently hard for Beneatha since, if money is the fuel for her actions in making her dreams realized, then it is a big contrast to have none of it. Her dream almost vanished. How did she turn out to continue seeing hoe despite of what happened? There is another character named Asagai who became the voice of realization. He made Beneatha realized the key thing about this vision of the dream she formed in her head. The dream had already been in her thoughts even prior to the death of his father, so it means that equating money to her dream is a big nuisance. It would be similar to the terrible equation of his father’s death hand in hand with the money. This showed that there remained to be ways on how it could be fulfilled without that so-called fuel of money. It can be money coming from different source instead. Beneatha realized this important thing, found her hope, continued dreaming. With the structure of their dreams, it is apparent that money equates house, then money equates liquor store and finally, money equated matriculation. With its many form, money remained to be the prime motivation that was shown in the play. The big question would be, along this clash of dreams, for how long can money control or determine the actions of the characters? On the mid part of the play, Walter was betrayed by his business partner leaving him with no money. There came the confrontations with Walter and the other characters especially with his wife, Ruth, who was also driven by dreams of having financial stability. It made them start from the scratch and all realizations that they need were established. Money is just a motivation but never a determinant of the quality of life that a harmonious family could have. Moreover, the dreams are manifestations that we are living while seeking whatever we want out of life. Money is not much important although, yes, it rates reasonably as oxygen. Lorraine Hansberry’s approach in tackling the concept of American dream showed that Money can either be seen as a fuel or an obstacle. The dreams that we have though is a picture of what we can do. At the same time as what we can see in the play is the motivation that money can give us but it doesn’t match the quality of motivation that important people can give. Works Cited Hamilton, Peter. Reconsidering Blummer’s Corrective Against the excess of Functionalism. Talcott Parsons: critical assessments. 4 (1992), 47-49 Mintz, Steven and Kellogg, Susan. Domestic revolutions: a social history of American family life. New York: The Free Press, 1988 Morrin, Maxine and Hansberry, Lorraine. A raisin in the sun. USA: Research and Education Association, 1994.

Style Analysis of Blog Writings :: Teaching Writing

Style Analysis of Blog Writings What is â€Å"style† in writing? After reading Strunk and White’s The elements of Style and Joseph William’s Style: Toward Clarity and Grace, I have come to understand what style is: I always thought of â€Å"style† as being your own, but through these books I learned that that’s not entirely true. â€Å"Style† is a mixture of many things and individualism only being one part, but for me the most important. Style is a way of writing clear, cohesive, grammatically correct and true to one’s self. White says in the last chapter of Elements of Style â€Å"style in the sense of what is distinguished and distinguishing.†(Strunk and White 66) Good writing is not that hard to achieve, any one can write well. If you write true to yourself it will make your writing better. Williams talks about â€Å"your voice† and so does Strunk and White. White says â€Å"All writers, by the way they use the language, reveal something of their spirits, their habits, their capacities and their biases.† (Srunk and White 67) Williams says â€Å"Writing well, they believe, has to do with being sincere, or writing how they speak, or finding their authentic voices, or just being born with the knack. (Williams 1) Good writing lets us know something about the writer even if it is technical. To be interesting we need some insight into the person’s feelings and thoughts. Writing should be something we enjoy not something that we dread or fear. Most people, students especially, have come to hate writing because they don’t know the â€Å"rules† and are afraid to make mistakes. It seems that people are more concerned with correct grammar then content. It is important to have good grammar, punctuation, and spelling, but what you have to say is the most important. People spend so much time worrying about what their paper looks like, then what it sounds like. Sitting down to write a paper can be intimating and sometimes it is hard to organize our thoughts to put them down on paper. I feel that reading books like Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace is helpful, but practice is the key to good writing. I had never heard of Blooger.com until I was introduced to it by my English class. I found the blog entries to be a helpful assignment, because the best way to become a good writer is by practice. Style Analysis of Blog Writings :: Teaching Writing Style Analysis of Blog Writings What is â€Å"style† in writing? After reading Strunk and White’s The elements of Style and Joseph William’s Style: Toward Clarity and Grace, I have come to understand what style is: I always thought of â€Å"style† as being your own, but through these books I learned that that’s not entirely true. â€Å"Style† is a mixture of many things and individualism only being one part, but for me the most important. Style is a way of writing clear, cohesive, grammatically correct and true to one’s self. White says in the last chapter of Elements of Style â€Å"style in the sense of what is distinguished and distinguishing.†(Strunk and White 66) Good writing is not that hard to achieve, any one can write well. If you write true to yourself it will make your writing better. Williams talks about â€Å"your voice† and so does Strunk and White. White says â€Å"All writers, by the way they use the language, reveal something of their spirits, their habits, their capacities and their biases.† (Srunk and White 67) Williams says â€Å"Writing well, they believe, has to do with being sincere, or writing how they speak, or finding their authentic voices, or just being born with the knack. (Williams 1) Good writing lets us know something about the writer even if it is technical. To be interesting we need some insight into the person’s feelings and thoughts. Writing should be something we enjoy not something that we dread or fear. Most people, students especially, have come to hate writing because they don’t know the â€Å"rules† and are afraid to make mistakes. It seems that people are more concerned with correct grammar then content. It is important to have good grammar, punctuation, and spelling, but what you have to say is the most important. People spend so much time worrying about what their paper looks like, then what it sounds like. Sitting down to write a paper can be intimating and sometimes it is hard to organize our thoughts to put them down on paper. I feel that reading books like Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace is helpful, but practice is the key to good writing. I had never heard of Blooger.com until I was introduced to it by my English class. I found the blog entries to be a helpful assignment, because the best way to become a good writer is by practice.

Report on Sir Isaac Newton Essay

Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician and physicist. He was considered one of the greatest scientists in history. Newton was also the culminating figure in the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Newton was best known for his discovery that the force called gravity affects all objects in space and on earth. .Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642, in the hamlet of Wollsthorpe, Lincolnshire (R.S.W. 17) His Father died only three months before he was born (Sir Isaac Newton 1). When he was three years old Isaac’s mother, Hanna, placed him with his grandmother so that she could remarry a man named Barnabas Smith, a wealthy man from North Witham (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 1). When his mother returned to Woolsthorpe in 1653, Newton was withdrawn from school to fulfill his birthright as a farmer. Newton failed at farming, and returned to King’s School at Grantham to prepare for entrance to Trinity College, Cambridge. A turning point in Newton’s life was when he left Woolsthorpe for Cambridge University in June of 1661 (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 1). Although Cambridge was a marvelous center of learning, the spirit of the scientific revolution had yet to enter its curriculum. In 1665 Isaac Newton took his bachelor’s degree at Cambridge without honors or distinction (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 2). In 1665 the university was closed because of the plague. At this time Newton returned to Woolsthorpe. There, in the following 18 months, he began revolutionary advances in mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy (J. A. Schuster 1). During the plague years, Isaac Newton laid the foundation for elementary differential and integral Calculus. He invented the â€Å"method of fluxions† which was based on his crucial insight that finding the area under its curve is the inverse procedure to finding the slope of the curve at any point (J. A. Schuster 1). Also during the plague years he made remarkable discoveries in optics. He had reached the conclusion that white light is not a simple, homogeneous entity. He proved this by passing a thin beam of sunlight through a glass prism which created a spectrum of colors on the wall opposite. Isaac argued that white light is a mixture of many different types  of rays, that the different types of rays are refracted at slightly different angles, and that each type of ray is responsible for producing a given color (J. A. Schuster 2). Newton’s greatest work was in physics and celestial mechanics. In 1666, Newton had formulated early visions of his three laws of motion (J.A. Schuster 3). Also during these years he examined the elements of circular motion and, applying his analysis to the moon and the planets, found the inverse square relation that the radially directed force acting on a planet decreases with the square of its distance from the sun. This was later crucial to the law of universal gravitation (Sir Isaac Newton 3). When the University of Cambridge reopened after the plague in 1667, Newton put himself forward as a candidate for a fellowship (Sir Isaac Newton 3). He was elected to a minor fellowship at Trinity College but, after being awarded his Master’s Degree, he was elected to a senior fellowship in 1668. Before he had reached his 27th birthday, he succeeded Isaac Barrow as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 2). In 1672, shortly after his election to the Royal Society, he communicated his first public paper, a controversial study on the nature of color (Sir Isaac Newton 4). The paper was generally well received but Hooke and Huygens objected to Newton’s attempt to prove, by experiment alone, that light consists of the motion of small particles rather than waves. Although his hypotheses was not convincing, his ideas about scientific method won universal assent along with his corpuscular theory. These reigned until the wave theory was revived in the early 19th century (Newton, Sir Isaac 2). Newton’s relations with Hooke soured. Newton withdrew from public discussion for about a decade. After 1675, he devoted himself to chemical and alchemical researches. He postponed the publication of a full account of his optical researches until after the death of Hooke in 1703. Newton’s Opticks appeared in 1704. Newton’s Opticks dealt with the theory of light and color and with Newton’s investigations of the colors of thin sheets. It also contained â€Å"Newton’s Rings† and the phenomenon of diffraction of light  (Newton, Sir Isaac 2). In 1689, Newton was elected to represent Cambridge in Parliament. During his stay in London he became acquainted with John Locke, the famous philosopher, and Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, a brilliant young mathematician who became a friend. In 1693, however, Newton suffered a severe nervous disorder (Dr. Robert A Hatch 4). There are many interpretations to the cause of this disorder. Some of these interpretations include overworked, the stress of controversy, and perhaps mercury poisoning the result of nearly three decades of alchemical research. After his recovery Newton sought a new position in London. In 1696 Newton was appointed Warden and then Master of the Mint (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 4). In 1703, Newton was elected president of the Royal Society and was annually reelected until his death (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 5). In 1705 Isaac Newton was knighted (Margret C. Jacob 390). His time as president has been described as cruel, and his control over the lives and careers of younger disciples was all but absolute. Newton could not stand for contradiction or controversy; his quarrels with Hooke provided a single example. Later disputes, as president of the Royal Society, Newton used all the forces he could muster. An example of this is when he published Flamsteed’s astronomical observations without the author’s permission. In the end, the actions of the Society were extensions of Newton’s will. Until his death Newton dominated the landscape of science without rival (Dr. Robert A. Hatch 5). Issac Newton died in London on March 20, 1727 (R.S.W. 20). In conclusion, Sir Issac Newton was one of the greatest scientists in history. Newton was also the culminating figure in the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Many of his theories have become foundations for many areas of science.